Footnotes

[2] Sommer, R. S., Benecke, N. , Lõugas, L. , Nelle, O. and Schmölcke, U. (2011), Holocene survival of the wild horse in Europe: a matter of open landscape?. J. Quaternary Sci., 26: 805-812. doi:10.1002/jqs.1509

[4] Cieslak M, Pruvost M, Benecke N, Hofreiter M, Morales A, Reissmann M, et al. (2010) Origin and History of Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in Domestic Horses. PLoS ONE 5(12): e15311. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015311

[5] Schubert M, Jónsson H, Chang D, et al. Prehistoric genomes reveal the genetic foundation and cost of horse domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2014;111(52):E5661-E5669. doi:10.1073/pnas.1416991111.

[7] Boyd L and Houpt K A, Przewalski’s Horse: the history and biology of an endangered species. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p. 7. CHAPTER

[8] Smith, Charles Hamilton. The Natural History of Horses: the equidae or genus equus of authors. 1841. Edinburgh. W H Lizars. PAGE?

[9] Varro. De Re Rustica. Loed Classical Library, 1934, book II. PAGE.

[10] Strabo. Geography. Book IV Chapter 6 published in Vol. II of the Loeb Classical Library edition,1923. p 263.

[11] Bököyni, S. The Przevalsky Horse. Translated by Lili Halápy. Souvenir Press. London. 1974. Picture section.

[12] Bahn, P and Vertut, J. Journey Through the Ice Age. University of California Press. 1997. p. 16.

[13] Linduff, K M. “A Walk on the Wild Side: Late Shang Appropriation of Horses in China” in Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, edited by Levine M, Renfrew C and Boyle K. McDonald Institute Monographs, Oxbow Books (distributors), 2003.

[14] Waley, A. “The Heavenly Horses of Ferghana” in History Today.

[15] Ibid. p 8. There may always be more texts that haven’t reached Western wild horse scholarship yet.

[16] Africanus, L. The History and Description of Africa. Translated by John Pory. London. vol III, Hakluyt Society. translation 1600, this edition MDCCCXCVI. PAGE?

[17] There are also mentions of wild horses in Arabia, although Arabia sometimes seems confused with “Tartary” even at quite a late date, for example, by Thomas Bewick in his History of Quadrupeds, where a description of the behaviour of wild horses “in Arabia” closely echoes that of John Bell. “Desert” is often used for “steppe” during this period.

[18] Moon, D. “The Russian Academy of Sciences Expeditions to the Steppes in the Late Eighteenth Century.” The Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 88, no. 1/2, 2010, pp. 204–236. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20780418. p.205

[20] Vermeulen, H F. Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment. University of Nebraska Press, Nebraska. 2015. p196.

[21] Boyd L and Houpt K A, Przewalski’s Horse: the history and biology of an endangered species. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p. 87. CHAPTER

[22] Clutton-Brock, J. Horse Power. Natural History Museum Publications, London, 1992. p 28. 

[23] Smith, Charles Hamilton. The Natural History of Horses: the equidae or genus equus of authors. 1841. Edinburgh. W H Lizars. p146.

[24] Heptner VG, Nasimovich AA and Bannikov A G. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation, 1988. PAGE.

[25] Smith, Charles Hamilton. The Natural History of Horses: the equidae or genus equus of authors. 1841. Edinburgh. W H Lizars. p165

[26] Prothero, D R. The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals. Princeton University Press. 2017. p. 189.

[27] Darwin, C. The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication. Charles John Murray, vol 1, 1868. accessed on archive.org p55-56

[28] There was also a growing romanticisation of which began to feature in Western cultural forms from fine art to melodrama. See Landry, D, Noble Brutes (John Hopkins University Press, 2008) and Forrest, S, The Age of the Horse, an Equine Journey through Human History (Atlantic Books, 2016).

[29] Ritvo, H. “How wild is wild?” in Edges of Environmental History. ed. Christof Mauch and Libby Robin. Rachel Carson Centre. 2014. p XXXX

[30] Cornay, J E. De la reconstruction du cheval sauvage primitif... et de la restauration par l'omaimogamie de nos races chevalines régionales altérées par la sélection et le croisement. Paris : P. Asselin.1861 p 8.

[31] Cornay, J E. De la reconstruction du cheval sauvage primitif... et de la restauration par l'omaimogamie de nos races chevalines régionales altérées par la sélection et le croisement. Paris : P. Asselin.1861.

[32] Heptner VG, Nasimovich AA and Bannikov A G. Mammals of the Soviet Union. Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation, 1988. PAGE.

[34] Swart, S. “Zombie Zoology” in Historical Animals, ed. by Susan Nance. Syracuse University Press, New York. 2015. p. 54.

[35] Bököyni, S. The Przevalsky Horse. Translated by Lili Halápy. Souvenir Press. London. 1974. p.33

[36] The full list of regional and binomial names for the Takhi and Tarpan runs well into double figures so I have not attempted to give them all here for the sake of clarity.

[37] Bököyni, S. The Przevalsky Horse. Translated by Lili Halápy. Souvenir Press. London. 1974. p40.

[38] Bouman, I and J. “The History of the Przewalski’s Horse” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p. 17.

[39] Bouman, I and J. “The History of the Przewalski’s Horse” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p. 17–21

[40] Mohr, E. The Asiatic Wild Horse. Translated by Daphne Machin Goodall. J A Allen & Co., London. 1971. p12.

[41] Anonymous. Correspondence. Scientific American. October 15 1904. 

[42] One of the best known of these polygony schemes is by Ebhardt, who named four original wild horses: the Urpony (best represented by the Exmoor), the Tundrapony (the Takhi); the Ramshead horse (the Sorraia) and the Ur-thoroughbred.

[43] Willmann, R. “Lebt Europa’s Urpferd?” Abenteuer Natur, 5/97. p42

[44] Mohr, E. The Asiatic Wild Horse. Translated by Daphne Machin Goodall. J A Allen & Co., London. 1971. p69. Furthermore, both Groves and Lyddeker believe that the tiny Yo-To-tse or Asinus equuleus that reached Park Lane, London from the Chinese frontier north of Calcultta in the eighteenth-century might have been a Takhi. It had saddle marks, although when a heavy groom tried to ride it he was thrown onto a dung heap. (Smith, 1841, pp. 304-307)

[45] Smith, Charles Hamilton. The Natural History of Horses: the equidae or genus equus of authors. 1841. Edinburgh. W H Lizars. p162, fn. The Takhi currently in West Berlin Zoo are extremely sociable with their human keepers.

[46] Fijn (2015) says that the Mongolians she interviewed in the twenty-first century said that they historically believed darker takhi to be a mountain type and lighter to be the steppe type. Bököyni (p47) says Falz-Fein reported that the Mongolians referred to the lighter horses as Syrtach (desert Takhi) and the darker as Kurtach (mountain Takhi).

[47] Jezierski T and Jaworski Z, Das Polnische Konik, Westarp Wissenschaften-Verlagsgesellschaft, Hohenwarsleben, 2008. pp. 15-19

[48] Jezierski T and Jaworski Z, Das Polnische Konik, Westarp Wissenschaften-Verlagsgesellschaft, Hohenwarsleben, 2008. p. 20.

[49] Jezierski T and Jaworski Z, Das Polnische Konik, Westarp Wissenschaften-Verlagsgesellschaft, Hohenwarsleben, 2008. pp. 19-20

[50] Shapiro, B. and Seddon, P. (2017), Pathways to de‐extinction: how close can we get to resurrection of an extinct species? Funct Ecol, 31: 996-1002. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12705 p997.

[51] Heck, L. Animals: My Adventure. Translated by E W Dickes. Jarrold and Sons. 1954. Page?

[52] Bruce, G. Through the Lion Gate: a history of Berlin Zoo. Oxford University Press. 2017. PAGE

[53] Bruce, G. Through the Lion Gate: a history of Berlin Zoo. Oxford University Press. 2017. pp127-32.

[54] Heck, L. Animals: My Adventure. Translated by E W Dickes. Jarrold and Sons. 1954. Page?

[55] It was probably an elk.

[56] Heck, L. Animals: My Adventure. Translated by E W Dickes. Jarrold and Sons. 1954. Page?

[57] Heck, L. Animals: My Adventure. Translated by E W Dickes. Jarrold and Sons. 1954. Page?

[58] Driessen, C., Lorimer, J. (2016). Back-breeding the aurochs: the Heck brothers, National Socialism and imagined geographies for nonhuman Lebensraum. In: P. Giaccaria and C. Minca, Hitler’s Geographies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp138-9.

[59] Heck, H. “The Breeding-Back of the Tarpan”. Translated by Winifred Felce. Oryx, Journal of the Fauna Preservation Society vol 1, No 7 - November 1952. PAGE

[60] Driessen, C., Lorimer, J. (2016). Back-breeding the aurochs: the Heck brothers, National Socialism and imagined geographies for nonhuman Lebensraum. In: P. Giaccaria and C. Minca, Hitler’s Geographies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp363-4

[61] The human inhabitants of the forest – locals, partisans and fugitive Jews – were driven out and, in many cases, killed by the Germans. See Schama, S, Landscape and Memory. Vintage Books. New York. 1995. pp. 71-2.

[62] I found one source which said that two horses survived, but of what type I was unable to ascertain, nor what happened to them after the war. 

[63] I was contacted while writing this chapter by someone who had acquired five geldings from what the 40-50 remaining horses from Heck junior’s Catskill Game Reserve herd. The caretaker of the herd was elderly and concerned about the future of the horses.

[64] Bouman, I and J. “The History of the Przewalski’s Horse” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p27.

[65] Bouman, I and J. “The History of the Przewalski’s Horse” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p 27.

[66] Bold, B O. Eques Mongolica. 2012. p18.

[67] Bandi, N and Dorjaraa, O. Introduction. In Takhi: Back to the Wild. Ulaanbaatar, 2012. pp12-13.

[68] Bököyni, S. The Przevalsky Horse. Translated by Lili Halápy. Souvenir Press. London. 1974. pp.18-20

[69] Bandi, N and Dorjaraa, O. Introduction. In Takhi: Back to the Wild. Ulaanbaatar, 2012. p. 13.

[70] Some naturalists, including one I interviewed in 2013, believe that some Takhi may have survived in very remote regions. In Eques Mongolica, Bat-Ochir Bold says “verbal information travelling among Mongolian local nomads stated that sightings occurred even after 1969.” (p.19)

[71] Mohr, E. The Asiatic Wild Horse. Translated by Daphne Machin Goodall. J A Allen & Co., London. 1971. PAGE.

[72] Groves, C. “Morphology, Habit and Taxonomy” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p. 43.

[73] Bouman, I and J. “The History of the Przewalski’s Horse” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p 31.

[74] Bouman, I and J. “The History of the Przewalski’s Horse” in Przewalski’s Horse: The history and biology of an endangered species. Ed. by Lee Boyd and Katherine A Houpt. State University of New York Press, Albany, 1994. p. 32

[75] Wit P and Bouman I. The Tale of the Przewalski’s Horse: Coming Home to Mongolia. KNNV Publishing. Utrecht. 2006. p83.

[76] Mohr, E. The Asiatic Wild Horse. Translated by Daphne Machin Goodall. J A Allen & Co., London. 1971. p. 26.

[77] http://www.sorraia.org/a-breed-by-now.html

[78] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hucul_pony

[79] http://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/rare-tarpan-herd-found-in-us-35564 For a more detailed list of “primitive” horse breeds, see https://rewildingeurope.com/blog/where-did-the-wild-horse-go/

[80] http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41763/0

[81] Bököyni, S. The Przevalsky Horse. Translated by Lili Halápy. Souvenir Press. London. 1974. p.66.

[82] Petra Kaczensky, Oyunsaikhan Ganbataar, Nanjid Altansukh, Namtar Enkhsaikhan, Christian Stauffer, Chris Walzer. “The Dangers of Having All Your Eggs in One Basket—Winter Crash of the Re-introduced Przewalski's Horses in the Mongolian Gobi.” PLoS ONE 6(12): e28057.

[83] Machteld C. Van Dierendonck, Michiel F Wallis de Vries. “Ungulate Reintroduction: Experiences with the Takhi or Przewalski Horse in Mongolia” Conservation Biology vol 10, issue 3, pages 728-740, June 1996

[84] http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/7961/0

[85] Fijn, N. “The domestic and the wild in the Mongolian horse and the takhi” in Taxonomic Tapestries: the Threads of Evolutionary, Behavioural and Conservation Research, edited by Alison M Behie and Marc F Oxenham, ANU press, 2015. pp283-292.